Poem: La Belle Dame sans Merci

 

Poem: La Belle Dame sans Merci

LA BELLA DAM SANS MERCI

What are poems?

Poems are the best form of literature. It is a piece of writing arranged in short lines in a musical manner and rhythm. Poems comprise of few lines, few lines of poem give great moral of life. poems express one's thoughts and feeling in the best expressive way and are the best way to convey emotion or ideas to the reader's or listener's mind. We get three words Poesy (the creation), poet (the creator), and poem ( the created) from the Greek verbs. Different forms of poetry are Ballads, sonnets, Doha, and rhyming completely. Poems are the oldest, ancient form of literature.

Through poems, the hearts can be won soon. Fredric P. Saboteur said, " I have won many female relations with this valid resource."

The great poets of English literature are William Shakespeare, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Emily Dickinson, D.H. Lawrence, Rabindranath Tagore, Henry Longfellow, and many more.

About the poet of the poem LA BELLE DAME SANS MERCI.

John Keats - Romantic poet

John Keats was born on 31 October 1795 in London he was an English Romantic poet. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of Romantic poets, despite his works having been in publication for only four years before his death. He died at the young age of 25 suffering from tuberculosis on 23 February 1821 in Rome.

Although his poems were not generally well received by critics during his lifetime, his reputation grew after his death, and by the end of the 19th century, he had become one of the most beloved of all English poets. The poetry of Keats is characterized by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of romantic poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through an emphasis on natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular and most analyzed in English literature.

Some of the most acclaimed works by Keats are “Ode to a Nightingale”, "Sleep and Poetry", and the famous sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer".

About the poem LA BELLE DAME SANS MERCI.

Summary:

The speaker of the poem comes across a "knight at arms" alone, and apparently dying, in a field somewhere. He asks him what's going on, and the knight's answer takes up the rest of the poem. The knight says that he met a beautiful fairy lady in the fields. He started hanging out with her, making flower garlands for her, letting her ride on his horse, and generally flirting like knights do. Finally, she invited him back to her fairy cave. Sweet, thought the knight. But after they were through smooching, she "lulled" him to sleep, and he had a nightmare about all the knights and kings and princes that the woman had previously seduced – they were all dead. And then he woke up, alone, on the side of a hill somewhere.

O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,

Alone and palely loitering?

The sedge has withered from the lake,

And no birds sing.

In the first stanza, the speaker questions the knight who is 'alone and palely loitering.' What's the pain to the knight that he looks ill. The edge of the lake is withered and there are no birds singing this indicates it is the time of evening or autumn or the early winter that birds are migrated.

O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,

So haggard and so woe-begone?

The squirrel’s granary is full,

And the harvest’s done.

The knight at arm doesn't answer the question immediately, in the second stanza poet repeats the question. The second stanza gives two more adjectives to knight in pain 'haggard', and 'woe-begone'.

Last two lines of the stanza the squirrel's granary is full and the harvesting in the field is complete shows that it is sure late autumn.

I see a lily on thy brow,

With anguish moist and fever-dew,

And on thy cheeks a fading rose

Fast withereth too.

The third stanza is giving the physical appearance of a knight in pain. The speaker in the third stanza is still addressing the knight, 'lily of thy brow' signifies the knight is depressed or is in tension. his face is as pale as a lily. The words 'moist' and the 'fever drops' obviously prove that the knight is sick. In the last two lines of the stanza the face of the knight is compared with the fading rose it says how the color of the knight is fading away due to pain and depression.

I met a lady in the meads,

Full beautiful—a faery’s child,

Her hair was long, her foot was light,

And her eyes were wild.

Suddenly in stanza four, the knight answers the unnamed speaker. He reports that he met a beautiful lady in the meadows, she was a fairy- 'faery's child' princess from heaven. He describes the physical appearance of the lady he met. She had beautiful long hair, the knight described his graceful movement and her eyes were wild. she attracted the knight and made him fall for her.

I made a garland for her head,

And bracelets too, and fragrant zone;

She looked at me as she did love,

And made sweet moan

The fifth stanza shows the love moments between the knight and the lady. The knight makes the 'garland'- a flower wreath for the lady's head and 'bracelets' too which enhances the natural perfume. Lady with love in her eyes and moaning showed that she was feeling in love with the knight with every passing movement.

I set her on my pacing steed,

And nothing else saw all day long,

For sidelong would she bend, and sing

A faery’s song.

Stanza sixth is a continuation of stanza fifth the knight takes the fairy lady for a a ride on his horse -'pacing steed' doing nothing whole day. they enjoy each other's company and the fairy lady sings the fairy song for knight.

She found me roots of relish sweet,

And honey wild, and manna-dew,

And sure in language strange she said—

‘I love thee true’.

Fairy lady to show up her love for knight brought him some relish sweets - 'honey wild and manna dew.' The fairy lady tells the knight that she loves him, but she says it "in language strange." He doesn't say what language it is, or how he's able to understand her. Maybe he's just hearing what he wants to hear, or maybe her magical influence has enabled him to understand her "language strange."

She took me to her Elfin grot,

And there she wept and sighed full sore,

And there I shut her wild wild eyes

With kisses four.

In the eighth stanza the fairy lady takes the knight to her 'Elfin grot' a sort of magical place knight associates with fairy creatures such as elves. Suddenly reaching the cave the fairy lady bursts into tears cries out loud- 'sighed full sore'. The knight tries to soothe with his kisses that shut her “wild wild eyes”—words that suggest he has fallen in love with a creature that he cannot possess.

And there she lullèd me asleep,

And there I dreamed—Ah! woe betide!—

The latest dream I ever dreamt

On the cold hill side.

By the ninth stanza the knight comes to the present duration he further describes his horrible dream which made him loitering alone on the sedge. the fairy lady 'lulled' him to sleep and he dreamt, the memory of dream exclaimed him 'ah! woe betide!' which explained lot grief and sorrow. It was the last and the latest dream he dreamt on the cold hillside.

I saw pale kings and princes too,

Pale warriors, death-pale were they all;

They cried—‘La Belle Dame sans Merci

Thee hath in thrall!’

In the tenth stanza of poem the knight describes his dreams, the knight sees kings, princes and warriors they all were in 'death pale' the fact is the word pale is repeated thrice in the the stanza. The pale warriors, kings and princes were crying out loud ' LA BELLE DAME SANS MERCI.' Finally we reach to the title of the poem in tenth stanza; the title is in french translating it it is " a beautiful lady without mercy (pity). kings, warriors and princess cried out 'in thrall' with power.

I saw their starved lips in the gloam,

With horrid warning gapèd wide,

And I awoke and found me here,

On the cold hill’s side.

The knight continues to describe the pale warriors from his dream – in the 'gloam,' or dusk, all he can make out are their 'lips.' Their mouths are 'starved' and hungry-looking, and their mouths are all open as they cry out their warning to the knight. suddenly, the kinght wakes up from the dream finds himself on the cold hillside, feeling the deathlike cold of his dream and looking like the sad figure.

And this is why I sojourn here,

Alone and palely loitering,

Though the sedge is withered from the lake,

And no birds sing.

In stanza twelve, the knight notes that his experience with the lady is why he remains in this bleak (bare) setting, alone and feeling that he has lost the love of this beautiful figure that haunts and blights not only his life but also the world in which he finds himself. And the first stanza of the poem is repeated with the answer.

This deceptively simple tale written in a ballad style, featuring short lines and romantic longings, evokes the human yearning for an eternal, imperishable love, a bond that outlasts death and that conquers mortality. To lose the lady is tantamount to a kind of death for the knight. Thus, John Keats uses the medieval setting as a kind of allegory, a symbolic representation of what love represents. To the lover, the beloved is a fairy creature usually associated with perfection and with the desire to do good and to protect the loved one.

Meanings:

ail- pain

thee- you

pale- without energy

sedge- a grass- like plant

haggard- looking exhausted and unwell

woe begone- sad or miserable in appearance

anguish- mental or physical pain

withereth- become dry

meads- meadows

garland- a wreath of flowers and leaves, worn on the head or hung as a decoration

pacing steed- horse

elfin- having to do with elves

grot- cave

lulled- calm or send to sleep

hath- have

thrall- power

gloam- dusk

gaped- become wide open

sojourn- a temporary stay

The Ministry of Utmost Happiness

  Thinking Activity :- The Ministry of Utmost Happiness 

Hello Viewers! This blog is a part of thinking activity, which was  assigned by DR. Dilip Barad , Department of English, MKBU.  In this Blog I am going to give answers to some of the questions related to 'The Ministry of Utmost Happiness' and other information from this novel.

ARUNDHATI ROY:-

Arundhati Roy was born on November 24, 1961, in Shillong, Meghalaya, India. She is a famous Indian writer and someone who stands up for what she believes in. Her most famous book is called "The God of Small Things," which won awards in 1997. Besides writing, she is also very active in fighting for the environment and for people's rights. Because of this, she has faced some legal troubles. (Tikkanen)

THE MINISTRY OF UTMOST HAPPINESS:-

"The Ministry of Utmost Happiness" is a novel written by Indian author Arundhati Roy, published in 2017. The book is a sprawling narrative that weaves together various characters and storylines to depict the tumultuous landscape of contemporary India. At its core, the novel explores themes of social injustice, political upheaval, and the search for identity and belonging. It follows the lives of several characters, including Anjum, a transgender woman living in Delhi; Tilo, a woman with a mysterious past; and Musa, a Kashmiri freedom fighter. Through their intersecting stories, Roy paints a vivid portrait of the complexity and diversity of Indian society, while also delving into issues such as caste oppression, religious strife, and environmental degradation. The novel has been praised for its lyrical prose, richly drawn characters, and its incisive commentary on the state of modern India. (Open AI)

Here is the introductory video of 'The Ministry of Utmost Happiness available on YouTube.

1) HOW IS THE INTERTEXTUAL REFERENCES TO THE OTHER WRITERS IN THE NOVEL CONNECTED WITH THE CENTRAL THEME OF THE NOVEL?

In the novel Arundhati Roy gives little lines before the chapters which are like references to the other writers somewhat connected to the novel's main themes. Let us try to understand with the help of information in Dilip Barad sir's Blog and Arundhati Roy’s The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, or How to Recruit Art and Intertexts in the Battle against “Stupidification” article by Catherine Pesso-Miquel.

• I mean, it's all a matter of your heart...(यानी सारा मामला दिल का है...)

Nâzim Hikmet

This quote comes before the 1st chapter title 'Where Do Old Birds Go to Die?' The first quote, "I mean, it’s all a matter of your heart," comes from Nâzim Hikmet’s poem “On the Matter of Romeo and Juliet.” In Arundhati Roy’s writing, she connects Romeo and Juliet to the Arabo-Persian story of Laila and Majnun, showing how stories and cultures blend across borders. She highlights how authors from different places inspire each other, ignoring boundaries and claims of superiority. Anjum, one of her characters, plays with words, hinting at her gender and promoting inclusivity. In Anjum’s cemetery, those rejected elsewhere find acceptance, contrasting with how cemeteries in India are often segregated spaces for minorities. Ironically, Anjum’s cemetery symbolizes the diverse, inclusive India of the past. 

• In  what language does rain fall over tormented cities? (बारिश किस भाषा में गिरती है यातनाग्रस्त शहरों  के ऊपर ?)

Pablo Neruda

This quote comes before the 3rd chapter titled 'The Nativity'. The second quote from Pablo Neruda, a poet who faced exile and allegations of assassination under Pinochet's regime, evokes the defiant funeral procession that followed Neruda's coffin despite Pinochet's refusal to authorize a public funeral. This act of resistance is reminiscent of the fervent protests during the burial of Kashmiri martyrs in Roy's writing. These burials serve as protests against the indifference of occupying forces, who leave corpses unburied along the Line of Control in Kashmir. Beyond Kashmir, the novel explores themes of mourning and disposal of the dead, symbolized by the tragic fate of vultures and the treatment of Untouchable cow skinners by Hindu mobs.

Roy quotes from Neruda's last book, "Libro de las Preguntas" (The Book of Questions), focusing on a question about rain falling on tormented cities, echoing the torment depicted in India's diverse landscapes. This attention to language and diverse cultures is reflected in Roy's narrative style, which includes formal experiments like mock multiple-choice questions and reading comprehension passages.

• Death flies in, thin bureaucrat, from the plains - (मौत एक छरहरी नौकरशाह है, मैदानों से उड़कर आती हुई -)

Agha Shahid Ali

This quote comes before the 7th chapter named 'The Landlord'. The third quote comes from the first line of a poem by Agha Shahid Ali, a Kashmiri poet who experienced the pain of his homeland's suffering from a distance after moving to the USA. The poem reflects the intrusion of death, depicted metaphorically as a thin bureaucrat, into Kashmir. This quote sets the tone for the section narrated by "The Landlord," a character representing the cold and cynical authority of the State. Agha Shahid Ali's poetry, particularly his collection "The Country Without a Post Office," has been a source of comfort and inspiration for many Kashmiris. His voice echoes in the works of Kashmiri writers who have drawn from his words since his death in 2001. In Roy's novel, the presence of mourners fleeing from gunfire at a funeral, leaving behind countless shoes, vividly portrays the violence and tragedy experienced in Kashmir.

• Then, as she had already died four or five times, the apartment had remained available for a drama more serious than her own death. (क्योंकि वह पहले चार या पाँच बार मर चुकी थी, अपार्टमेंट उसकी मृत्यु से भी ज़्यादा गंभीर किसी नाटक के लिए उपलब्ध था।)

Jean Genet

This quote comes before the 8th chapter titled 'The Tenant'. The fourth quote is by Jean Genet, known for his novel "Notre-Dame-des-Fleurs," written during his time in prison in 1942. Although surprising at first, there are many connections between Genet's literary world and "The Ministry of Utmost Happiness." Genet's life experiences and his works place him among the "Unconsoled" and the "Indeterminate," with his novel's blend of eroticism and religion earning him a spot among both believers and blasphemers.

Genet's troubled youth, his suffering in prison, his activism for oppressed groups like Afro-Americans and Angela Davis, and his outrage over events like the Shatila massacre resonate with Arundhati Roy's themes. Moreover, Genet's narrative experimentation, with fluid genres and perspectives that defy categorization, likely inspired Roy's own quest for complexity and resistance to simplification. In "The Ministry of Utmost Happiness," Roy combines comedy, political satire, elegy, tragedy, poetry, realism, and magic realism, all with shifting points of view. This blend reflects Genet's pursuit of narrative originality and refusal to conform to traditional storytelling conventions.

• And they would not believe me precisely because they would know that what I said was true. (और वे मेरी बात पर सिर्फ़ इस वजह से यक़ीन नहीं करते थे की वे जानते थे कि मैंने जो कुछ कहा था वह सच था।)

James Baldwin

This quote comes before the 9th chapter titled 'The Untimely Death of Miss Jebeen the First'. The fifth quote is from James Baldwin's essay "Down at the Cross: Letter from a Region in My Mind," which discusses race relations in the USA, still relevant today. When applied to caste relations in India, Baldwin's reflections remain pertinent. The quote addresses the denial people face when confronted with the horrifying actions humans inflict on one another. Arundhati Roy highlights similar denials in India, where caste is often sidelined or ignored by intellectuals and scholars, despite its pervasive influence. She criticizes the privileged who presume caste has been eradicated simply because they haven't experienced it firsthand, likening it to presuming smallpox has vanished.

Roy's choice to quote Baldwin instead of Martin Luther King, who admired Gandhi, reflects her criticism of Gandhi's deification and sanitized portrayal. She acknowledges that caste discrimination is distinct from racial discrimination but insists they are comparable in their targeting of people based on ancestry and alleged impurity. Baldwin's insights about dehumanization in racism and casteism resonate in India, where victims internalize their inferiority. Baldwin urged his nephew not to accept the false narratives constructed by white people, emphasizing their inhumanity and fear, and rejecting any assumption of inferiority.

• Then there was the changing of the seasons. ‘This is also a journey,’ M said, ‘and they can’t take it away from us.’ (फिर मौसमों में परिवर्तन हुआ।  'यह भी एक यात्रा है,' एम ने कहा, 'और इसे वे हमसे छीन नहीं सकते।')

Nadezhda Mandelstam

This quote comes before the 10th chapter titled 'The Ministry of Utmost Happiness'. The final quote used by Roy is from Nadezhda Mandelstam's memoir, "Hope Against Hope," recounting the tragic fate of her husband, Osip Mandelstam, during Stalin's purges. Nadezhda played a vital role in preserving Osip's literary legacy by memorizing his unpublished poems and smuggling them out of the USSR for publication. Her memoirs depict the absurdity, cruelty, and randomness of life under Stalin's regime, reflecting on themes of hope, despair, and human dignity in the face of oppression.

Nadezhda's reflections on whether to howl or remain silent amidst oppression resonate with Roy's portrayal of human suffering and resilience. Roy's depiction of extreme torture in the Shiraz cinema and the martyred bodies of youths reflects a similar sense of cold rage and dark humor. Despite the bleakness, Roy also emphasizes the idea of "hope against hope," finding inspiration in Mirza Waheed's motif of yellow flowers symbolizing the intertwining of hope and grief.

The "Russian connection" in Roy's work can be contextualized within the influence of the Indian Communist Party, fostering cultural exchange with the USSR and facilitating access to Russian literature through translation into Indian languages, particularly in West Bengal. Even characters like Revathy, raised by her Communist grandfather, symbolize this connection, growing up surrounded by books from People's Publishing House and Soviet Bhumi. (Pesso-Miquel)

2) WHAT IS THE SYMBOLIC SIGNIFICANCE OF VULTURE AND GUI (DUNG BEETLE) IN THE NOVEL?

By referring these two Vulture and Gui Kyom in the novel Roy tries to give us a look towards the world which we never might have thought to look at. She uses the references which normally don't see in the novel anywhere for giving a message.

In "The Ministry of Utmost Happiness," these two have special meanings:

1. Vulture: The vulture represents death and destruction. It's often seen in scenes of violence or after disasters, like riots or natural events. Vultures eat dead animals, showing how life and death are linked. They remind us of the harsh parts of life and how people can be cruel to each other. Vultures can also show how those in power can take advantage of others, like when they benefit from people's suffering. In this Novel the reference of Vulture not only gave the social meaning but also gave the insight that how the species which making our surroundings clean are dying slowly because they eat the dead cows and animals and the people who are caretaking the cows are giving them the medicine which can be prove dangerous for Vultures after they eat dead skin or other organs. So, Roy also gave us an idea of how these small steps are necessary to understand and if Vultures didn't exist who would eat that dead body and everywhere there would be dead bodies. With this she also refers to the event where Dalit are resisting the about it and denies to clean the area because of it. 

Dr. J. Lindsay Oaks, an assistant professor of veterinary medicine at Washington State University who was the primary author of the report, said the devastation of vulture populations was the first clear case of major ecological damage caused by a pharmaceutical product. There has been growing concern among scientists and environmentalists about the ''vast amount of drugs that end up in the environment one way or another,'' he said, but no effect of this magnitude. (Gorman) 

2. Gui Kyom (Dung Beetle): Gui Kyom, the dung beetle, is different from the vulture. It stands for strength and change. Dung beetles are known for turning waste into something useful, like making soil richer for plants to grow. In the story, Gui Kyom is linked with Anjum, a transgender woman who finds beauty in unusual places. This shows that even in tough times, there's still hope and a chance for things to get better.

Here is an animated video available on Ted for better understanding of this.

These animals in the book help us understand big ideas like life, death, and how society works. The vulture reminds us of the hard parts of life, while Gui Kyom gives us hope that things can improve, even when they seem tough.

3) INSTEAD OF PRIVILEGING THE CENTER STAGE, "THE MINISTRY OF THE UTMOST HAPPINESS" SHIFTS THE SPOTLIGHT TO THE BACK ALLEYS AND HIDDEN CORNERS, GRANTING AGENCY TO THOSE TYPICALLY RELEGATED TO THE SIDELINES. ANALYZE HOW ROY'S DECISION TO CENTER THE PERIPHERY ENRICHES OUR UNDERSTANDING OF SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND EXISTENTIAL REALITIES OFTEN IGNORED BY MAINSTREAM NARRATIVES.

Arundhati Roy's book "The Ministry of Utmost Happiness" is special because it focuses on people who are usually ignored or left out of stories. Instead of talking about the most important or popular characters, Roy tells the stories of those on the sidelines - like transgender people, hijras, and Dalits. By doing this, she shows that everyone's experiences are important and that society is made up of many different kinds of people.

Roy's choice to highlight these marginalized groups lets her explore important social and political issues. Through the eyes of her characters, she talks about things like discrimination based on caste, tensions between religions, and how people are treated unfairly by those in power. By connecting these stories, Roy shows how these problems are all connected and make each other worse. This helps us understand how society works and why some people face more challenges than others.

In addition to discussing big issues, Roy also looks at how people see themselves and fit into society. Her characters often have multiple identities and belong to different groups. Roy shows us how they figure out who they are and where they belong, even when society tries to push them away.

Roy's book helps us see the world in a different way. By focusing on the stories of those usually ignored, she gives us a better understanding of society and the problems it faces. She challenges us to think about injustice and inequality and encourages us to see the value in everyone's experiences.

Let us see some examples of it...

• Anjum: Anjum is a transgender woman who creates her own community in a cemetery in Delhi. Her story explores the challenges faced by transgender individuals in Indian society, including discrimination, violence, and the struggle for acceptance. Anjum's narrative sheds light on the resilience and agency of transgender individuals, as well as the complexities of identity and belonging.
• Tilo: Tilo is another central character who is involved in various political and social movements throughout the novel. Her story intersects with those of other marginalized characters, highlighting the interconnectedness of their experiences. Tilo's journey reflects the broader political and social landscape of India, including issues such as religious tensions, political corruption, and environmental degradation.
• The Hijras: Throughout the novel, Roy explores the lives of hijras, a marginalized community of transgender individuals in South Asia. She delves into their rituals, traditions, and struggles for acceptance in society. The hijras in the novel serve as a symbol of resilience and resistance, challenging gender norms and societal expectations.
• The Kashmir Conflict: In the world where talking about Kashmir starts a war, Roy addresses the Kashmir conflict, a longstanding political and territorial dispute between India and Pakistan. Through the perspectives of various characters, including Kashmiri militants and ordinary citizens, she explores the human cost of the conflict and its impact on the lives of those living in the region.

These examples explain how "The Ministry of Utmost Happiness" centers the experiences of marginalized characters and explores the social, political, and existential realities that they face. By giving voice to these characters and their stories, Roy challenges mainstream narratives and offers a more inclusive and nuanced portrayal of Indian society.

WORKS CITED:-

• Gorman, James. “A Drug Used for Cattle Is Said to Be Killing Vultures (Published 2004).” The New York Times, 29 January 2004, https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/29/world/a-drug-used-for-cattle-is-said-to-be-killing-vultures.html. Accessed 16 February 2024.
• Open AI. "Chat GPT-3.5"
• Pesso-Miquel, Catherine. “Arundhati Roy’s The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, or How to Recruit Art and Intertexts in the Battle against “Stupidification.”” Polysèmes, 2021. https://journals.openedition.org/polysemes/9239.
• Roy, Arundhati. The Ministry of Utmost Happiness: A Novel. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2017.
• "‘The Ministry of Utmost Happiness’ by Arundhati Roy." Penguin Books South Africa, YouTube, 13 August 2018, https://youtu.be/_JAOmFlMlMc?si=m24ErnxW1tZcoun9.
• Tikkanen, Amy. "Arundhati Roy". Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 Dec. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arundhati-Roy. Accessed 15 February 2024.

Words: 2724

Photos: 6

Videos: 2

 

 Thinking Activity : Othello by W. Shakespeare 

    William Shakespeare:-

William Shakespeare (baptized April 26, 1564, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England—died April 23, 1616, Stratford-upon-Avon) is the poet, dramatist, and actor often called the English national poet. He is considered by many to be the greatest dramatist of all time.

Shakespeare occupies a position unique in world literature. Other poets, such as Homer and Dante, and novelists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Charles Dickens, have transcended national barriers, but no writer’s living reputation can compare to that of Shakespeare, whose plays, written in the late 16th and early 17th centuries for a small repertory theatre, are now performed and read more often and in more countries than ever before. The prophecy of his great contemporary, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson, that Shakespeare “was not of an age, but for all time,” has been fulfilled.

It may be audacious even to attempt a definition of his greatness, but it is not so difficult to describe the gifts that enabled him to create imaginative visions of pathos and mirth that, whether read or witnessed in the theatre, fill the mind and linger there. He is a writer of great intellectual rapidity, perceptiveness, and poetic power. Other writers have had these qualities, but with Shakespeare the keenness of mind was applied not to abstruse or remote subjects but to human beings and their complete range of emotions and conflicts. Other writers have applied their keenness of mind in this way, but Shakespeare is astonishingly clever with words and images, so that his mental energy, when applied to intelligible human situations, finds full and memorable expression, convincing and imaginatively stimulating. As if this were not enough, the art form into which his creative energies went was not remote and bookish but involved the vivid stage impersonation of human beings, commanding sympathy and inviting vicarious participation. Thus, Shakespeare’s merits can survive translation into other languages and into cultures remote from that of Elizabethan England.

Othello:- 

 Othello, tragedy in five acts by William Shakespeare, written in 1603–04 and published in 1622 in a quarto edition from a transcript of an authorial manuscript. The text published in the First Folio of 1623 seems to have been based on a version revised by Shakespeare himself that sticks close to the original almost line by line but introduces numerous substitutions of words and phrases, as though Shakespeare copied it over himself and rewrote as he copied. The play derives its plot from Giambattista Giraldi’s De gli Hecatommithi (1565), which Shakespeare appears to have known in the Italian original; it was available to him in French but had not been translated into English.

Othello

The play is set in motion when Othello, a heroic black general in the service of Venice, appoints Cassio and not Iago as his chief lieutenant. Jealous of Othello’s success and envious of Cassio, Iago plots Othello’s downfall by falsely implicating Othello’s wife, Desdemona, and Cassio in a love affair. With the unwitting aid of Emilia, his wife, and the willing help of Roderigo, a fellow malcontent, Iago carries out his plan.

Making use of a handkerchief belonging to Desdemona and found by Emilia when Othello has unwittingly dropped it, Iago persuades Othello that Desdemona has given the handkerchief to Cassio as a love token. Iago also induces Othello to eavesdrop on a conversation between himself and Cassio that is in fact about Cassio’s mistress, Bianca, but which Othello is led to believe concerns Cassio’s infatuation with Desdemona. These slender “proofs” confirm what Othello has been all too inclined to believe—that, as an older black man, he is no longer attractive to his young white Venetian wife. Overcome with jealousy, Othello kills Desdemona. When he learns from Emilia, too late, that his wife is blameless, he asks to be remembered as one who “loved not wisely but too well” and kills himself.

Prejudice:-

The most prominent form of prejudice on display in Othello is racial prejudice. In the very first scene, Roderigo and Iago disparage Othello in explicitly racial terms, calling him, among other things, "Barbary horse" and "thick lips." In nearly every case, the prejudiced characters use terms that describe Othello as an animal or beast. In other words, they use racist language to try to define Othello not only as an outsider to white Venetian society, but as being less human and therefore less deserving of respect. Othello himself seems to have internalized this prejudice. On a number of occasions he describes himself in similarly unflattering racial terms. And when he believes that he has lost his honor and manhood through Desdemona's supposed unfaithfulness, he quickly becomes the kind of un-rational animal or monster that the white Venetians accuse him of being.

Yet racial prejudice is not the only prejudice on display in Othello. Many characters in the play also exhibit misogyny, or hatred of women, primarily focused on women's honesty or dishonesty about their sexuality. Several times, Othello's age is also a reason for insulting him. In all of these cases, the characters displaying prejudice seek to control and define another person or group who frighten them. In other words, prejudice works as a kind of strategy to identify outsiders and insiders and to place yourself within the dominant group. And Othello himself seems to understand this—he concludes his suicide speech by boasting that he, a Christian, once killed a Muslim Turk, a "circumcised dog" (5.2.355) who had murdered a Venetian citizen. Othello tries to use religious prejudice against Muslims to cement his place within mainstream Christian Venetian society.

Appearance vs. Reality:- 

The tragic plot of Othello hinges on the ability of the villain, Iago, to mislead other characters, particularly Roderigo and Othello, by encouraging them to misinterpret what they see. Othello is susceptible to Iago's ploys because he himself is so honest and straightforward. As Iago puts it: "the Moor is of a free and open nature/ That thinks men honest that but seem to be so; and will as tenderly be led by th' nose/ As asses are" 

In Othello, Shakespeare plays with the idea of unreliable reality in a number of ways. The language of the play, which time and again refers to dreams, trances, and vision, constantly highlights the way in which what seems to be real may actually be fake. In addition, Shakespeare extends the theme of appearance vs. reality to include the art of playwriting and acting. As he develops his plot against Othello, Iago creates scenes within scenes. He sets up encounters between two characters and putting a third in the position of a spectator. For instance, he has Othello watch Cassio and Desdemona speak, and he has Othello watch him speak with Cassio about Bianca. In each case, Iago manipulates Othello so that Othello sees the appearance that Iago wants him to see, rather than the reality of what is actually happening. In this way, Iago becomes a kind of "director"—he even directly addresses the audience through his many soliloquies—and Shakespeare draws attention to the way that a playwright and actors create an appearance onstage that tricks the audience into seeing something other than reality.

Jelousy:- 

Iago refers to jealousy as the "green-eyed monster." As this metaphor suggests, jealousy is closely associated with the theme of appearance and reality. For instance, at one point Othello demands that Iago provide "ocular proof" of Desdemona's infidelity—he demands to see reality. But Iago instead provides the circumstantial evidence of the handkerchief, which Othello, consumed by his jealousy, accepts as a substitute for "ocular proof." Othello's jealousy impedes his ability to distinguish between reality and appearance. While the prejudiced characters in the play denigrate Othello as an animal or a beast based on his race, Othello's obvious honor and intelligence makes these attacks obviously ridiculous. Yet when Othello is overcome by jealousy, he does become beast-like, falling into epileptic fits that rob him of the ability to speak intelligibly.

Othello is also not the only character in Othello to feel jealousy. Both Iago and Roderigo act to destroy Othello out of jealousy, with disastrous consequences.

Manhood and Honor:-

Throughout the play, various male figures seek to assert and protect their manhood and their honor. Based on the Duke's regard for him in 1.3, it is clear that Othello has attained political power through his military might. The subplot in which Iago gets Cassio drunk and causes him to humiliate himself, also indicates the importance of "reputation, reputation, reputation." In fact, Cassio asserts that reputation is all that makes you human ("I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial" [2.3.252-3]). Iago asserts—however genuinely or disingenuously—that reputation is more valuable than anything in the world: "good name in man and woman [...] is the immediate jewel of their souls" (3.3.156).

Though military exploits are one way for men to build their honor, when not in war the primary means by which men define their honor is their ability to command the faithfulness of their women. In 1.1, Iago and Roderigo call Brabantio's honor into question because he hasn't been able to control the romantic or sexual impulses of his daughter, Desdemona. Later, Iago drives Othello to question his own manhood—indeed, his very humanity—by making him doubt whether he has power over his wife. In despair over his suspicions about his wife's faithfulness, Othello laments of himself: "A horned man's a monster and a beast" (4.2.62). That is, in his view, to lose control of the woman in his life is to lose everything that makes him human. In other words, without his honor, he sees himself in the same terms that the prejudiced characters see him: as an animal.

Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

 Thinking Activity :- Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde 

"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde":-

"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" is a classic Gothic novella by Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson, published in 1886. It tells the story of Gabriel John Utterson, a lawyer in London, who investigates the mysterious relationship between his friend Dr. Henry Jekyll and the sinister Edward Hyde.

This novella is renowned as a masterpiece of English literature, particularly within the gothic horror genre. Its influence extends beyond the literary world, with the phrase "Jekyll and Hyde" commonly used to describe individuals who exhibit both good and evil traits.

Robert Louis Stevenson :-

Robert Louis Stevenson was a famous Scottish writer known for books like Treasure Island and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. He was born in Edinburgh and struggled with health problems but still wrote a lot and traveled widely. Stevenson hung out with other writers in London and got inspired by them. Later in life, he moved to Samoa, where he got worried about other countries taking over the islands. He passed away at the age of 44 but is still remembered as a great writer whose books are loved around the world.

Dualities:-

"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" is often seen as exploring the idea of dualities within human nature, such as the struggle between good and evil. This inner conflict is portrayed through the characters of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Some interpretations suggest that suppressing one's darker impulses can lead to their manifestation in destructive ways. In psychological terms, this is akin to Freud's concept of the unconscious mind influencing conscious behavior. 

From a Christian perspective, the story reflects the consequences of refusing to acknowledge one's dual nature, paralleling Satan's fall from Heaven due to his refusal to accept his created status. Pride, or the denial of one's inherent flaws, is seen as a precursor to evil.

However, some interpretations, like Vladimir Nabokov's, challenge the simplistic view of good versus evil, suggesting that even Dr. Jekyll himself may not be morally upright by Victorian standards in certain aspects.

Id, ego and superego:-

In the theory of the id, ego, and superego, Dr. Jekyll represents the ego, which strives to balance between the primal urges of the id (represented by Mr. Hyde) and the moral standards of society, embodied in the superego. When Dr. Jekyll transforms into Mr. Hyde, the ego is suppressed, allowing the unchecked expression of the id's primal desires without the constraints of societal morals. This transformation illustrates the inner conflict between the different aspects of human psychology and the consequences of yielding to unchecked impulses.

Public vs. Private:-

In the theory of the id, ego, and superego, Dr. Jekyll represents the ego, which strives to balance between the primal urges of the id (represented by Mr. Hyde) and the moral standards of society, embodied in the superego. When Dr. Jekyll transforms into Mr. Hyde, the ego is suppressed, allowing the unchecked expression of the id's primal desires without the constraints of societal morals. This transformation illustrates the inner conflict between the different aspects of human psychology and the consequences of yielding to unchecked impulses.

Scottish nationalism vs. union with Britain:-

In another interpretation, the duality in "Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" is seen as symbolic of Scotland and the Scottish character. Here, the dualities reflect Scotland's relationship with wider Britain and the English language, as well as the influence of the Church of Scotland on Scottish identity. Additionally, parallels are drawn with Stevenson's birthplace, Edinburgh, which consists of two distinct parts: the old medieval section, associated with poverty and crime, and the modern Georgian area, representing respectability. This interpretation suggests a deeper exploration of social and cultural tensions within Scotland, reflected through the characters and themes of the novella.

Addiction:- 

Some scholars have argued that addiction or substance abuse is a central theme in the novella. Stevenson's depiction of Mr.  Hyde is reminiscent of descriptions of substance abuse in the nineteenth century. Daniel L. Wright describes Dr. Jekyll as "not so much a man of conflicted personality as a man suffering from the ravages of addiction".^[22] Patricia Comitini argues that the central duality in the novella is in fact not Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde but rather Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde and Utterson, where Utterson represents the rational, unaddicted, ideal Victorian subject devoid of forbidden desires, and Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde constitutes his opposite.

Darwin:- 

The publication of The Origin of Species had a significant impact on Victorian society. Many did not fully understand the concepts of evolution, and assumed Darwin meant humans had evolved directly from apes, and that if it was possible to evolve into humans, it was also possible to degenerate into something more ape-like and primitive. Mr. Hyde is described as a more primitive and less developed version of Dr. Jekyll, and gradually Hyde becomes more bestial as his degeneration progress.

Homosexuality:-

The novel was written at a time when the Labouchere Amendment was published, criminalising homosexuality. The discourse on sex in general had become a secret and repressed desire, while homosexuality was not even to be thought about. This represents Mr. Hyde, whose purpose is to fulfill all of Dr. Jekyll’s repressed desires. The lack of prominent women in the novel also helps to create a homosexual interpretation, since the focus is on romanticising bachelor boyhood for men. There were some things that Dr. Jekyll did as Mr. Hyde that he was too embarrassed to confess for, even on his deathbed, which follows the secrecy and shame of homosexuality in the Victorian era. Lanyon also refused to speak, sparing Jekyll the embarrassment and criminality of being known as a homosexual.